The origin of both fires was located under the window in the sofa, but different accelerants were used to start each test fire with 2-gallons of gasoline in test 1 and scattered newspaper in test 2. Later the term morphed into heat shadowing, which was first defined as the effect of an object blocking the convected or radiated travel of heat and flame from its source to the particular surface material which is under examination (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). The varying DOFD discussed in NFPA 921 is consistent with the findings from the existing studies (Schroeder 1999; Hicks et al. Proceedings of The 3rd International Conference on Performance-Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, SFPE, Bethesda, MD (USA), Mealy C (2013) Ignitable Liquid Fuel Fires in Buildings A Study of Fire Dynamics. The same proponents of identifying pour patterns as being indicative of an ignitable liquid, also promulgated that holes in floors were indicative of ignitable liquids being used (Battle and Weston 1960; Fitch and Porter 1968; Barracato 1979; Smith 1983; Harmer et al. Despite the lack of validity and this caution, the training and textbooks within the profession during this time used these indicators as a means to link an observation to the speed of the fire and ultimately to the conclusion of fire cause. The tests were typically conducted to evaluate multiple aspects of using damage for origin determination and not just within the context of clusters of damage, therefore, many of these tests will describe fire effects, clusters of fire effects, fire pattern generation and the use of fire patterns to arrive at an area of origin. Reprinted with permission from the author. Many of the first texts on fire investigation discussed the concept of low burning and the importance of evaluating the floor for fire patterns (Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. 2014). When a fire develops in an enclosure, the products of combustion (e.g. V-pattern, U-pattern, hourglass-pattern). 4 and 5). 2012), Testing photograph for carpet pad seam generation of pattern similar to reported ignitable liquid pour showing burning in exposed surface resulting from carpet pad shrinkage (Wood et al. This change in ventilation is typically done during ventilation-controlled conditions, which causes the HRR to increase within the compartment and results in combustion wherever the mixture of UHCs and oxygen is sufficient and that the mixture be at a sufficient temperature to initiate combustion (Madrzykowski and Kerber 2009; Kerber and Walton 2005). In the Ngu study, a series of power law correlation plots were developed between the calcination of gypsum wallboard and the total heat exposure for various types and thicknesses of the material (2004). Kennedy (1959) relates that wooden joists or studding are exposed to burningthe sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. NFPA 921 (2014) discusses that plume-generated patterns typically have characteristics associated with geometric shapes. Processes that identify thresholds needed for fire patterns to be identified can be better defined through experimental work or pattern recognition studies. It was not until 2008 that NFPA 921 changed the definition of the term with the introduction of the term fire effects. Duxbury, California (USA), Cooke R, Ide R (1985) Principles of Fire Investigation. Schroeder was able to illustrate that a crystalline change would occur within the gypsum wallboard when heated by using an x-ray diffraction technique. The only point of contention then would be the manner in which the ventilation opening was created. Other penetration patterns have arisen, which dealt more with determining the direction of fire spread from top down or bottom up. Prior to discussing the patterns themselves and their historical progression, it is first important to recognize that lines of demarcation or areas of demarcation serve as the borders of a fire pattern and should be defined. and/or including victims. (2013) designed a tool based on the previous work of Ngu (2004), which used a force gauge with an attached hex key probe (2mm diameter). Sides that are wider at the bottom and slope upward to the center of the hole are from below (NFPA 2014). Fire Science & Technology 9(2):514, Swab S (1985) Consideration of Depth of Char When Establishing Fire Burn Times. Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, pp 657667, Wolfe A, Mealy C, Gottuk D (2009) Fire Dynamics and Forensic Analysis of Limited Ventilation Compartment Fires Volume 1: Experimental. They also stated that based on the clean zone area, the flame height and the fire size can be calculated (Riahi 2012). Fire Safety Science 9:13411352, Jarman K, Kreuzer-Martin H, Wunschel D, Valentine N, Cliff J, Petersen C, Colburn H, Wahl K (2008) Bayesian-integrated microbial forensics. He attributes the differences to the ventilation effects. gtuSLH{2lF>u;yQ2J)@p"cZLL#u9z}.AnwFA?kRr}8F&tr d{Dy{{ \|u)(pV W Muscular strength develops and recedes over time because of necessity; one example of this is a baby learning to walk. 1997; Carman 2008; Gorbett et al. The one test that deviated showed a V-pattern emanating from the floor behind the entertainment center giving the appearance that the fire origin could be interpreted to be located on or near the floor behind the entertainment center when the fire origin was to the left and along side the television inside the entertainment center (Hoffmann et al. 2013). This was the first published work that outlined how to develop a legend and diagram as demonstrative aids for applying the heat and flame vector analysis. Noticeable patterns created by the fire as it burns. These researchers proffered that the closer the fuel item burning was to the wall surface, the sharper the contrast and angle to the lines of demarcation and the more likely the damage would resemble a V in shape. The most important finding from these tests is that the interpretation of all fire effects provides substantial evidence for the investigator to identify the correct area of origin (Gorbett et al. Finally, the study was conducted with a variety of digital cameras and they found that the optical properties were not dependent on the camera used. 2009). Smoke consists of liquid aerosols, solid particulates (i.e. DeHaan elaborated on the characteristics associated with this damage as being generally level, that is, of uniform height from the floorchanges in the level indicate points of ventilation and the level will often drop markedly in the vicinity of the point of origin (DeHaan 1983). This production of incomplete combustion byproducts is exacerbated in poorly ventilated spaces, ventilation-controlled burning regimes and combustion of fuels that under normal atmospheric conditions have high soot yields (e.g. He then recorded the maximum lateral distances at which the target fuels were scorched, charred, or ignited. 2003). Many plastic materials will burn. Often times, positive-pressure ventilation, or mechanically induced ventilation, through the use of a fan is employed in conjunction with fire suppression activities. Mealy et al. Thus, a fire investigator must have a solid grasp of the physics and variables that influence a fires development, as well as how these variables may or may not have influenced the damage outcome. 2010). The majority of this review is of North American work. The tool is built around a digital indicator gauge commonly used in machining. The deposition of smoke/soot onto surface linings and contents within an enclosure stems from the following: Fluid flows Temperature and velocity of the gases colliding with cooler surfaces (thermophoretic forces). Chapter 3, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. 1997). The inverted cone or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the top. There has been much work towards developing methods for calculating the radiant heat transfer from a plume to secondary objects outside of the plume with varying accuracy. Often, a saddle burn is caused by a burning liquid on the floor or radiant heat from a material close to the floor. As the smoke exits the opening, it expands in volume and rises. American Re-Insurance. These tests produced the first published data that supported fire patterns as being useful in fire investigation. The pointer theory was proffered as a system of determining the point of origin of a fire by tracing its path back to its sourcethe system is based on the fact that fires normally travel by feeding on flammables. flaming combustion detached from the fuel item or package), High Temperature lining surfaces Radiant heat transfer (absorption/reflection). Used to determine the sequence of events that occurred during the fire When fires increase in size or burn for an extended period, fire patterns at the origin may be more difficult to identify. 2013). Dissertation, The University of Edinburgh, Kahneman D, Tversky A (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. The fire investigators observations are simply assessing the varying DOFD. Google Scholar, Rethoret H (1945) Fire Investigations. 2007; Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012). Carman (2008) noted similar areas of damage of great magnitude directly opposite door openings and within the inflow of the air from this door. Their study reported that the fire damage to the surface and internal cross section of the wallboard occurs progressively in the following manner: Discoloration/degradation of facing paper; Partial dehydration and discoloration/soot staining of surface layer of gypsum; Formation of anhydrous and hemihydrate layers with layers progressing through the cross section; Complete conversion of dihydrate to anhydrous and hemihydrate; Anhydrous extends through the entire cross section; Wallboard becomes catastrophically heat damaged and lacks structural integrity. The influences of the U-shaped exterior wall geometry on upward flame spread over insulation material on plain and plateau were studied through laboratory-scale experiments. Two methods are used to visibly interpret damage on gypsum wallboard (1) cross-sections of the wall can be evaluated for visibly identifiable changes to the gypsum wallboard through depth and (2) the surface effects can be evaluated for visibly identifiable varying DOFD. Mass loss of the furniture items was measured at the end of each test and was showed to relate well to the area of origin. The authors would like to thank Bill Hicks for providing pictures taken during fire testing. Manage cookies/Do not sell my data we use in the preference centre. The evolution in terminology clarifies how fire patterns became a more restricted definition and it is this bounded term that will be the focus of this literature review section. The fuel-controlled conditions did not have any damage associated with ventilation openings, therefore it will not be considered here. Paper presented at the 8th IAFSS Symposium, London (UK), Vesely W, Goldberg F, Roberts N, Haasl D (2002) Fault Tree Handbook. The sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. He concluded that it was possible to identify the quantity of fuel used by the burn area. Correct determination of the origin depends on the correct. The room burns produced patterns that were both consistent with the origin as well as burn patterns and V-patterns that were inconsistent with the origin. One recommendation called for those forensic science disciplines that rely on human interpretation to adopt procedures and performance standards that guard against bias and error (NIJ 2009). (2010)). The Mealy study (2013) indicated that a variance on the depth measurements, regardless of the user, was negligible (~10% variance) and that the method worked at reliably indicating fire travel, especially when no visible observations could be made. The only method that appears to be systematized and examples provided was the truncated cone method in conjunction with the heat and flame vector analysis (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). (2006; 2008) conducted a fire pattern reproducibility study using single fuel items. These two studies demonstrated a relatively predictable response of visible damage to the gypsum wallboard consistent with the varying DOFD identified in NFPA 921 (Figs. sill height (0.812m). (1997)) reported that suppression-generated patterns, those caused by water spray from a fire department hose line, were easily identifiable in their test series. Their example is as follows, if the investigator decides he has located a seat of fire within a radius of error of 1m, he is certain that the original seat of fire lays within an area having one metres [sic] radius (i.e. This will leave a series of burned studs, which serve as pointers or arrows to trace the fire (Kennedy 1959). The most recent example of this failure resulted in the execution of Cameron Todd Willingham by the State of Texas on the basis of an investigation that relied on poor understandings of fire science and investigators that failed to acknowledge or apply the contemporaneous understanding of the limitations of fire indicators (Beyler 2009). A number of those investigators have taken very little additional training since their basic training and, of those, some do not recognize how flawed their early training was or the impact of how the lack of training regarding current techniques influences their conclusions. The term or similar terms were later defined in subsequent texts as where the fires destruction took place and where it did not (DeHaan 1983). fire pattern creation stems from the amount of heat flux on a materials surfaceover the duration of the fire.vi,vii,viii,ix Therefore, the fire plume and the various fluxes generated by it are the primary means of pattern production in the early stages of a fire. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson (Boudreau et al. The ULG patterns are characterized by level lines of demarcation (or lines with similar elevation) with a generally uniform degree of damage (NFPA 2014). 2012). These patterns are often witnessed on vertical surfaces of content items and wall linings. Currently, no systematic method exists for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 7:1618, Crofton, MD, Straeter R, Crawford C (1955) Techniques of Arson Investigation. The compartment was furnished as a residential living room with a couch under the window, armchair directly across the room from the door opening, an office chair adjacent to the doorway and a coffee table. Investigators work backward from the outer lines, examining everything in the fire's path for clues to the direction in which the fire was moving. Building Research Institute of Japan., p 27, Keith, Smith (1984) Analysis of Char Patterns Known as Alligatoring. (1997)) and Gorbett et al. Wiley, Chichester (UK), Taroni F, Bozzo S, Aitken C, Garbolino P, Biedermann A (2010) Data Analysis in Forensic Science: A Bayesian Decision Perspective. The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. Combining the definition of pattern with the current definition of fire patterns provides a better definition. Some experimental work has been conducted in this area as well as predictive calculations (Jahn et al. The higher temperatures and higher velocities of smoke cause greater collection of soot deposits to form in certain locations within the compartment. What are the 4 elements of extinguishment? 15 and Table2). As the gases rise and expand, they also begin to interact with ventilation openings. 1977). For example, if an investigator observed charred wood with large, rolling blisters giving it the appearance of alligator skin, then the fire investigator was to interpret this as a rapid fire which was often used then used in concluding that the fire was incendiary in nature. 1997). The focus of his process was similar to the others in describing that the area of origin will be located at the greatest area of damage and the investigators should focus on identifying the low burn damage areas and using conical shapes. Photograph of penetration through a floor. The chapter on fire patterns underwent reorganization between the 20042008 editions to divide fire effects and fire patterns. The DOFD as outlined in this article never received any traction within the community and has never been picked up in any other literature (Figs. Consequently, Kirk can be credited as the first person to describe the damage by a fire as a geometric shape. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, MA, Wieczorek C, Vandsburger U, Floyd J (2004) An evaluation of the global equivalence ratio concept for compartment fires: data analysis methods. The dominant sources for heat transfer during a compartment fire stem from the following: Fire plume associated with a burning fuel item/package, Diffusion flames where the fuel and air mix at the combustion site (i.e. Interpretation of the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns was next appraised. This method was used to identify each fire pattern within the compartment, ascribe a direction or intensity to that damage and assign a directional arrow on a diagram to reflect this damage, however, no specific procedural details were provided on how to implement this analysis or how to interpret direction (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Kirks three-dimensional conical shape persists today as the predominant means of evaluating the geometry of fire patterns. 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